http://apologeticspress.org/APContent.aspx?category=8&article=254
A Christian Approach To Islam [Part I]
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Garry K. Brantley, M.A., M.Div. |
In 1990, U.S. President George Bush was faced
with an international crisis that he felt warranted an immediate and
decisive military response. Under the direction of Saddam Hussein, Iraq
invaded the small, bordering nation of Kuwait. Iraq’s massive military,
with its superior weaponry, experienced little difficulty occupying and
controlling Kuwait. The threat of destabilization in this oil-rich
region prompted President Bush to dispatch thousands of troops into
Saudi Arabia, which began Operation Desert Shield. In early 1991, U.S.
and allied troops successfully defeated Iraq’s feared military in the
now-famous Operation Desert Storm, and drove back the remnants of
Hussein’s tattered troops to Baghdad, the capital of Iraq.
During this conflict, which potentially threatened global peace,
millions in the U.S. were glued to their television sets by anxiety over
the fates of their fellow citizens. Technology and dauntless reporters
kept us abreast of practically every frightening clash between Iraqi and
allied forces. In the course of this continuous news coverage,
Westerners not only were confronted with Saddam Hussein’s dreaded
military, but also were exposed to a culture that is dominated by an
unfamiliar religion—Islam. With the increasing awareness of our global
society, and with the worldwide proliferation of this religion, it is
important for Christians to understand and respond to Islam.
ORIGIN OF ISLAM
Such a task must begin with Islam’s origin and nature. The immensity of
the subject and space restrictions preclude an exhaustive treatment of
these points. Hence, only a broad survey of the origin and contours of
Islamic thought and practices will be presented.
Muhammad, Founder of Islam
The origin of Islam can be traced back to Muhammad (var. sp.: Muhammed, Mohammed), who was born c. A.D.
570 at Mecca, the holy city in western Saudi Arabia. Muhammad’s
practically unknown father died before his birth, and his mother died
when he was only six. The early orphaned Muhammad was reared by his
grandfather and uncle who, though disputed by some Western scholars,
appear to have been prominent members of the Qurayah tribe. This Arabian
clan was the guardian of the Kaabah (var. sp.: Ka’bah), the great
shrine at Mecca in whose walls the sacred black stone was embedded.
According to Arabian tradition, the black stone fell from heaven in the
time of Adam, a possible indication that it was a meteorite that landed
in the sands of Arabia (Humble, 1980, 4:52). Muslims believe that, on
his pilgrimage to Mecca with Ishmael, Abraham built the Kaabah and
positioned the meteorite within its walls. This shrine, which figures
prominently in Muhammad’s life and the establishment and development of
Islam, was dedicated to the Arabs’ pantheon of deities.
While Muhammad’s early life is somewhat obscure, apparently he was
employed by a rich widow, Khadija, who entrusted him with her caravans.
Khadija was so impressed with his dependable and conscientious service
that she married Muhammad, provided him with wealth and success, and
encouraged his religious inclinations. With his wife’s support, Muhammad
increasingly withdrew from business affairs, and spent much of his time
in the seclusion of the desert meditating and reflecting on life
(Schmalfuss, 1982, p. 311). During this process, Muhammad developed a
passionate monotheistic belief, and became extremely frustrated with the
polytheism and superstitions of his fellow Arabs. Though it is
difficult to determine the extent to which variant shades of
Christianity and Judaism influenced the development of Muhammad’s strict
monotheism, it is clear that ”at some period of his life he absorbed
much teaching from Talmudic sources and had contact with some form of
Christianity” (Anderson, 1975, p. 93).
Muhammad’s Revelations and the Qur’an
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad, at the age of forty, began to
receive revelations from God through the angel Gabriel. His first
alleged encounter with the heavenly messenger was quite violent. While
Muhammad was in a deep trance, Gabriel appeared to him and, either by
choking or some other life-threatening gesture, forced Muhammad into
submission. “Read,” Gabriel demanded, “in the name of thy Lord, who
created man from clots of blood” (
sura 96:1; cf., Schmalfuss,
1982, p. 311). Since the encounter was both violent and accompanied by
convulsions that sent him into an unconscious trance, Muhammad at first
was unsure of the source of his vision. He feared that he possessed one
of the
jinn (demons) commonly believed to inhabit Arab poets and
soothsayers (Anderson, 1975, p. 94). Khadija and others, however,
assured Muhammad of the divine source of his visions. Once convinced of
his prophetic call, Muhammad’s revelations occurred with increasing
frequency.
Since, as many Muslims argue, Muhammad was illiterate, he did not
record these revelations personally. During his lifetime, however, his
followers transcribed and collected much of Muhammad’s oral teachings
into the Qur’an (var. sp.: Koran), though many passages were preserved
only in the memory of his followers and were committed to writing after
his death (Shorrosh, 1988, p. 24). The word Qur’an derives from the
Arabic word
qara’a (“to recite”), a designation consistent with
the recurring mandate for Muhammad to “proclaim” (i.e., “recite” or
“read”) the words of Allah. Consisting of 114 chapters (called
suras), the Qur’an is a non-chronological collection of verses, reflecting various periods in Muhammad’s life. Each
sura of the Qur’an is subdivided into verses (
ayat). Interestingly, the Arabic word
ayat
carries with it the meaning of “a miracle.” For those seeking
certification of his claims, Muhammad would appeal to the Qur’an itself
as miraculous confirmation of his divine appointment to the prophetic
office (Wilson, 1982, p. 315). All Muslims, regardless of their
sectarian affiliation, continue to regard the Qur’an as their sacred and
authoritative text.
Muhammad’s Rejection and Flight from Mecca
Once convinced that his first revelatory experiences in the desert were
from God, Muhammad began to denounce openly the polytheism of his
people and to proclaim a rigid monotheism. By emphasizing the
resurrection of the dead, and the subsequent judgment of God, he
challenged the populace to submit to the One (Allah) true God, and to
show compassion to the poor. Consistent with this message of submission,
the word “Islam” is the infinitive of the Arabic verb “to submit,” and
“Muslim” (“one who submits”) is the present participle of the same verb.
Muhammad’s monotheistic message threatened the financial interests of
many in Mecca who profited from the regular pilgrimages of polytheists
to the Kaabah. As might be expected, Muhammad met with considerable
opposition, and succeeded in making only a few converts. Due to the
increasingly aggressive hostility directed against him by the traders at
Mecca, Muhammad and his small band of followers fled from Mecca to
Medina on July 16, 622. This “flight” from Mecca, which Muslims call the
“
Hijra,” marks the official beginning of the Islamic religion.
Reflecting this point of origin, the Islamic calendar is calibrated to
the
Hijra. According to Islamic chronology, for example, A.D. 630 would be designated 8 A.H. (“in the year of the
Hijra”).
Unlike his experience in Mecca, where he was rejected as an eccentric
purveyor of an unpopular—and unprofitable—religion, Muhammad enjoyed
greater success in Medina. There, he “soon became statesman, legislator
and judge—the executive as well as the mouthpiece of the new theocracy”
(Anderson, 1975, p. 95). Several
suras in the Qur’an, which
emphasize obedience to the Prophet and insist on his favorable
treatment, reflect Muhammad’s influential position at Medina (cf.,
3:29,126; 4:17-18; 24:63-64; 49:2-4; see Geisler and Saleeb, 1993, p.
57).
Though significantly greater than at Mecca, Muhammad’s success at
Medina was not as extensive as he desired. He particularly was
disappointed at his lack of reception among the Jewish population.
Rather than embracing him for his monotheism, the Jews eventually
rejected Muhammad’s prophetic claims, and criticized his inaccurate
accounts of Old Testament events. It became obvious that there were
serious discrepancies between Qur’anic and biblical details of the same
incident. To maintain the divine origin of the Qur’an, Muhammad was
compelled to charge the Jews with either corrupting, or misquoting,
their own scriptures. This allegation further heightened the tension
between Muhammad’s followers and the Jews, and eventually precipitated
the banishment or massacre of Jewish tribes in that area (Anderson,
1975, p. 95).
The Return to Mecca
Once his relationship with the Jews was severed, Muhammad no longer
looked to Jerusalem, but refocused on Mecca as the center of the Islamic
religion. Muhammad’s renewed interest in Mecca necessitated his purging
the town of its polytheism, thus bringing it into harmony with the
monotheism of Islam. Enlisting the help of nomadic Arab tribes, Muhammad
led a series of armed raids on Mecca, and in A.D.
630 he captured the city with no resistance. Mecca quickly was purged
of all its polytheistic symbols, and the Kaabah became the focal point
of the religion of the one true God. Before his death in A.D. 632 (11 A.H.),
Muhammad had made great strides in unifying the Arab tribes throughout
the Arabian peninsula under the banner of Islam (see Anderson, 1975, p.
96; Noss, as quoted in McDowell, 1983, p. 381).
MAJOR DIVISIONS OF ISLAM
Since Muhammad neither left a male heir nor named a successor, his
death created an immediate leadership crisis in Islam. The nature of
Islam, however, which encompassed both civil and religious concerns,
demanded a successor (Caliph, or Khalifa) to guide its adherents in
applying the principles of the Qur’an to contemporary circumstances.
Naming such an individual proved to be a difficult and divisive task.
Along with other issues of interpretation, the role of, and criteria for
appointing, the Caliph eventually fragmented Islam into two major
divisions that remain today: Sunni and Shi’a (see Kung, 1986).
The Sunni
The Sunni branch, claiming approximately 90% of all Muslims, argued
that the Caliph should belong to Muhammad’s tribe, the Qurayah, and that
the community should choose him by the process of consensus (
ijma).
Since Muhammad was the “Seal of the Prophets,” the Sunnis considered
the responsibilities of the Caliph merely to guard—not continue—the
prophetic legacy, and to provide “for the administration of community
affairs in obedience to the Qur’an and prophetic precedent” (Kerr, 1982,
p. 330). Within thirty years of Muhammad’s death, four Caliphs were
appointed in succession: Abu Bakr (632-634), ‘Umar (634-644), ‘Uthman
(644-656), and ‘Ali (656-661). Sunnis regard these first Islamic leaders
as “the four rightly guided Caliphs,” since they lived so close to
Muhammad. Because of their chronological proximity to Muhammad, Sunnis
believe that the
sunna (behavior or practice) of these four
Caliphs, together with the Prophet’s, is authoritative for all Muslims.
The Sunnis derive their name from this emphasis on the
sunna.
While there are subdivisions of this group, distinguished by specific
points of interpretation, they all call themselves Sunni.
The Shi’a
The other major branch of Islam, which claims about 10% of the Muslim
population and exists primarily in Iraq and Iran, is the more militant
Shi’a. The Shi’ites, as those comprising the Shi’a sect are called,
splintered from the Sunnis primarily over the question of the Caliphate.
Regarding this matter, there are specifically two points of
disagreement between Shi’ites and Sunnis. First, the Shi’ites place more
rigid genealogical restrictions on the Caliph than do the Sunnis. On
the one hand, Sunnis believe that the Caliph should be a descendent of
Muhammad’s tribe. On the other hand, Shi’ites argue that the Caliph
should descend specifically from ‘Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law. In fact,
the word Shi’ite means “partisan” and indicates that Shi’ites are
“partisans of ‘Ali” (Rood, 1994). Second, the Shi’ites differ with the
Sunnis regarding the authority of the Caliph. Unlike the Sunnis, Shi’ite
Muslims believe that the Islamic leader, whom they call the
imam, is more than merely a guardian of Muhammad’s prophetic legacy. Rather, Muhammad bequeathed ‘Ali with his
wilaya
(i.e., his “spiritual abilities”), enabling him to interpret the Qur’an
and to lead the Islamic community infallibly. Though there are various
interpretations, Shi’ites generally believe that the
wilaya has been passed down through the subsequent generations of ‘Ali’s descendants. They further believe that this “cycle of the
wilaya” will continue until the last day when humankind will be resurrected and judged (see Kerr, 1982, p. 331).
The majority faction within the Shi’a branch, known as the Imamis (most
of whom live in Iran), believes that the completion of the
wilaya cycle will end with the messianic return of the twelfth
imam. According to this sect, the twelfth
imam has been in “occultation” (the state of hiding) since the third century of Islam. They believe, however, that the
ayatollahs (senior experts in Islamic law) have access to the hidden
imam,
and thus, have the right to interpret Islamic law and make religious
rulings (Kerr, 1982, p. 331). The late Ayatollah Khomeini, perhaps the
most widely remembered Shi’ite leader among contemporary Westerners, was
considered to be the spokesman for the hidden
imam.
Sufis
Though more a movement within, rather than a sect of, Islam, a third
identifiable group that should be mentioned is the Sufis. Reacting to
the externally oriented, and legalistic disposition of the Islamic
religious system, Sufis seek a mystical experience of God. The word
Sufism usually is translated “mysticism,” which reflects this emphasis
on a personal religious experience. Since Sufis, who belong to either
the Sunni or Shi’a sect, desire more than an intellectual knowledge of
Allah, they are prone to a number of superstitious practices (Rood,
1994).
BASIC BELIEFS OF ISLAM
As might be expected, in light of the vast diversity in Islam, there
are many variant beliefs among Muslims worldwide. Though there are
differences of opinion surrounding their application, six articles of
faith form the core of the Islamic religion.
1.
Monotheism. As indicated earlier, pre-Islamic Arabs were
polytheists. Due to Muhammad’s successful monotheistic campaign, Muslims
recognize and devote themselves to only one God, whom they call Allah.
Worshiping or attributing deity to any other being is considered by
Muslims to be
shirk, or blasphemy.
2.
Angels and jinn. Muslims believe in a well-structured
organization of angelic beings. At the lowest level in the hierarchy of
spirit beings in Islamic thought are the
jinn, who are capable
both of committing good and evil deeds, and of inhabiting human beings.
After his first frightening encounter with Gabriel, Muhammad feared that
he was possessed by one of these potentially fiendish beings. The
angels of God are above the
jinn in rank. In Islamic angelology,
each Muslim is accompanied by two angels—one on the right, the other on
the left. This angelic pair is responsible for recording the good and
evil deeds of the Muslim, respectively.
3.
God’s holy books. The Qur’an refers to numerous other volumes
that Muslims consider as God’s holy books. Chief among these Islamic
sacred texts are: the Mosaic Law; the Davidic Psalms; the Gospel (
Injil)
given to Jesus; and the Qur’an revealed to Muhammad. Muslims, following
Muhammad’s allegation, contend that the original Torah (Pentateuch),
Psalms, and Gospels have been corrupted by Christian and Jewish writers,
and essentially lost. As the final revelation from God, the Qur’an
supersedes all previous revelations and truth claims (Shorrosh, 1988, p.
30).
4.
God’s prophets. Muslims believe that there has been a long
succession of prophets through whom Allah revealed his will. While there
is no consensus regarding the exact number of prophets, Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus are considered the five prophetic predecessors
to Muhammad. There seems to be universal agreement among Muslims that
Muhammad was God’s supreme and final prophet—the “seal” of the prophets.
5.
Resurrection and Judgment. Similar to elements of Christian
eschatology, Muslims believe in a general resurrection of humankind,
followed by a final judgment. In this connection, human works are
central. How successful a Muslim was at keeping the mandates of Islamic
law determines his or her eternal fate. Those who have accomplished more
good deeds than bad will be admitted into paradise, a place abounding
with sensual pleasures (e.g., luxury, physical comfort, abundant food,
lovely maidens, etc., see
sura 4:57-58; 37:45-48). Those who are
deficient in good deeds will be consigned to hell in which, among other
excruciating torments, they will be attired in fiery garments (
sura 22:19-20; cf., 18:28-29).
6.
Predestination. Though not a mandatory doctrine, most Muslims
accept a rigid form of predestination reflected in the comment made by
the devout: “If Allah wills it.” This belief holds that all events, good
or bad, are determined directly by Allah. It is thus the function of
the dedicated Muslim to “submit to that divine determination with
obedient thankfulness,” though he or she still must face Allah’s strict
justice (Shorrosh, 1988, p. 32).
BASIC PRACTICES OF ISLAM
As already indicated, human works play a crucial role in Islam. The
most important works or duties generally acknowledged by Muslims may be
summarized in what are commonly called the “Five Pillars of Islam.”
1.
The creed (
kalima or
shahada). “
La ilaha il’ Allah, Muhammadan Rasoulu Allah.”
These words, translated, “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is
the messenger of Allah,” constitute the essential creed of Islam. This
is the first duty of every Muslim, for it is necessary to recite this
creed before at least two witnesses to become a Muslim. And, the
faithful Muslim will repeat this creed constantly.
2.
Prayers (
salat). Muslims, regardless of their social
or economic status, submit to a rigorous daily regimen of prayer. Five
times a day (only three for Shi’ites), Muslims respond to the call to
prayer by the
muezzin (a Muslim crier) from a tower called a
minaret, which is part of the
mosque
(the place of public worship). They recite prescribed prayers together
with the appropriate action of placing the forehead to the ground.
Regardless of their geographic location, the faithful Muslim will face
toward Mecca and perform this prayer ritual at the appropriate
intervals. It is further incumbent on all adult male Muslims to gather
each Friday at noon for community prayer, and to hear a weekly sermon.
3.
Almsgiving (
zakat and
sadaqa). Orphaned himself
at a young age, Muhammad was very sensitive to the plight of the
destitute. Though some do so more extensively than others, several
Qur’anic
suras emphasize the duty of Muslims to give alms (2,4,19,23,33,107). Almsgiving is divided into two broad categories. The
zakat
are the legal alms, which require that Muslims allocate 2.5%
(one-fortieth) of their income and merchandise for this charitable
purpose. Different percentages are assigned to agricultural produce and
cattle. The
sadaqa are free-will offerings that are above and beyond the legally binding proportion of almsgiving.
4.
Fasting (
Ramadan). During the month of
Ramadan
(the ninth lunar month of the Islamic year), all healthy, adult Muslims
(except pregnant women, nursing mothers, and travelers) are required to
abstain from food, liquids, and sexual intercourse during daylight
hours. There are both historical and theological reasons for
Ramadan.
Historically, Muslims believe that during the ninth lunar month,
Muhammad received the first revelations from God and that during this
same month, he and his followers made their historic escape from Mecca
to Medina. Theologically, the fast helps develop a Muslim’s
self-control, reliance on Allah, and sympathy for the poor.
5.
The Pilgrimage (
Hajj). Every Muslim is expected to
make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Since
the rituals involved in the pilgrimage are physically demanding, the
old or infirm can perform this duty by proxy. The
Hajj serves to
solidify Islamic faith, and to promote the ideas of worldwide unity and
equality among Muslims (Rood, 1994; McDowell, 1983, p. 392).
6.
The Holy War (
jihad). Though not a part of the Five Pillars, the
jihad
is a duty usually associated with them. The word means “exertion” or
“struggle” on behalf of God. Muslims are divided regarding the Qur’an’s
call to
jihad. Extremists interpret
jihad as literal
warfare against non-Muslims, and believe that Muslims who die in a holy
war are assured of a place in paradise. More moderate interpreters
suggest that the Qur’an’s call to arms refers to a specific incident of
Muhammad’s armed conflict with his enemies, and should neither be
applied universally nor pressed literally (Al-Ashmawy, 1995, p. 158).
In addition to these basic beliefs and practices, Muslims are guided by numerous laws and traditions contained in the
hadith. The
hadith,
which was compiled after the Qur’an was completed, reportedly contains
Muhammad’s examples and statements regarding various topics. The Qur’an
and
hadith address virtually every aspect of life, making Islam not just a religion, but an all-encompassing way of life.
CONCLUSION
In this installment, I have surveyed briefly the complex landscape of Islam. In the
following article,
I will attempt to identify the points of tension between Christianity
and Islam, and offer a response to the latter’s core beliefs.
REFERENCES
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Anderson, Norman (1975), “Islam,”
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Geisler, Norman L. and Abdul Saleeb (1993),
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Humble, B.J. (1980), “The Religion of Iran [Part I],”
Firm Foundation, 97[4]:52, January 22.
Kerr, David (1982), “The Unity and Variety of Islam,”
Eerdmans’ Handbook to the World’s Religions (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans).
Kung, Hans (1986), “Sunnis and Shi’ites: The State, Law, and Religion: A Christian Response,”
Christianity and World Religions, ed. Hans Kung (Garden City, NY: Doubleday).
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart (1983),
Handbook on Today’s Religions (San Bernardino, CA: Here’s Life Publishers).
Rood, Rick (1994),
What Is Islam? [Online]. (Richardson, TX: Probe Ministries). URL http://www.gocin.com/probe/islam.htm.
Schmalfuss, Lothar (1982), “Muhammad,”
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Shorrosh, Anis A. (1988),
Islam Revealed: A Christian Arab’s View of Islam (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson).
Wilson, Christy (1982), “The Qur’an,”
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